IMMUNOLOGY

Detailed explanation-1: -A monokine is a cytokine produced by monocytes and macrophages that has a regulatory effect on the function of other cells such as lymphocytes. Monokines include interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and interferons and colony-stimulating factors.

Detailed explanation-2: -Proinflammatory cytokines are produced predominantly by activated macrophages and are involved in the up-regulation of inflammatory reactions. There is abundant evidence that certain pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1, IL-6, and TNF- are involved in the process of pathological pain.

Detailed explanation-3: -M1 macrophages are characterized by an elevated ability to secrete cytokines such as IL-1, TNF, IL-12, and IL-18; phenotypically, they express high levels of main histocompatibility complex class II (MHC-II), CD68 marker, and CD80 and CD86 costimulatory molecules.

Detailed explanation-4: -Monocytes secrete pro‐inflammatory cytokines including ILs and TNF, and these cytokines can activate other leukocytes and endothelial cells to a pro‐adhesion, pro‐migratory phenotype, and stimulate them to secrete vasoactive substances.