IMMUNOLOGY

Detailed explanation-1: -Whereas the adaptive immune system arose in evolution less than 500 million years ago and is confined to vertebrates, innate immune responses have been found among both vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as in plants, and the basic mechanisms that regulate them are conserved.

Detailed explanation-2: -The memory in innate immunity has been described as a defence mechanism present not only in vertebrate organisms, but also in invertebrates such as plants and insects.

Detailed explanation-3: -Invertebrates use a nonadaptive, innate immunity, the expression of germline encoded receptors, to identify the allogeneic and xenogeneic attributes. Vertebrates also have the capacity to express ontogenically related adaptive immunity which is a somatically selected gene rearrangement process.

Detailed explanation-4: -Innate immunity has evolved in plants, resulting in a wide diversity of defense mechanisms adapted to specific threats. The postulated PTI/ETI model describes two perception layers of plant innate immune system, which belong to a first immunity component of defense response activation.

Detailed explanation-5: -Invertebrates lack an adaptive immunity; however, they are endowed with a potent and complex innate immune system similar to that of vertebrates.

Detailed explanation-6: -Like plants, invertebrates lack an adaptive immune system. The innate immune system on which they rely was long thought to provide a fast but non-specific response to pathogens, and considered unable to use experience of previous attacks to improve protection in the future.

Detailed explanation-7: -Both plants and animals (including insects and mammals) have an innate immune system, which helps protect hosts from the majority of microbes they encounter during their lifetime. Plant and animal innate immune systems recognize an overlapping set of conserved microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs).