PATHOLOGY

Detailed explanation-1: -Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is known as an important regulator of tumor microenvironment and inflammation. TNF levels are markedly elevated in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which is an independent risk factor for lung cancer.

Detailed explanation-2: -Corticosteroids are the most commonly used type of anti-inflammatory medicines that treat COPD. Steroids come as both pills and inhalers. The pills are mostly used for times when you are having a COPD exacerbation, or when it is getting worse, because they can work more quickly.

Detailed explanation-3: -COPD false positive diagnosis was defined as unobstructed postbronchodilator spirometry (forced expiratory volume in 1 second/forced vital capacity>lower limit of normal [FEV1/FVC>LLN]) following a COPD diagnosis. A ratio of FEV1/FVC <0.7 was used as a fixed value in further analyses.