AP PSYCHOLOGY

Detailed explanation-1: -Bias is caused by systematic variation, while chance is caused by random variation. The consequence of bias is systematic error in the risk ratio, rate ratio, or odds ratio estimate. Bias may be introduced at the design or analysis phase of a study.

Detailed explanation-2: -Confirmation bias, sampling bias, and brilliance bias are three examples that can affect our ability to critically engage with information.

Detailed explanation-3: -Motivational Bias, are beliefs that are distorted by wishful thinking. Examples: Salesperson gives low sales projections to ensure “meeting expectations.” Product champion understates costs and overstates sales.