AP BIOLOGY

Detailed explanation-1: -A monokine is a cytokine produced by monocytes and macrophages that has a regulatory effect on the function of other cells such as lymphocytes. Monokines include interleukin-1, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and interferons and colony-stimulating factors.

Detailed explanation-2: -When macrophages are exposed to inflammatory stimuli, they secrete cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF), IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, and IL-12. Although monocytes and macrophages are the main sources of these cytokines, they are also produced by activated lymphocytes, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts.

Detailed explanation-3: -Monocytes secrete pro‐inflammatory cytokines including ILs and TNF, and these cytokines can activate other leukocytes and endothelial cells to a pro‐adhesion, pro‐migratory phenotype, and stimulate them to secrete vasoactive substances.

Detailed explanation-4: -M2b macrophages are activated by immune complex, Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands and IL-1 and release both pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-10.

Detailed explanation-5: -These factors produced by the cells of the immune system are referred to as cytokines in the generic sense. More specifically, factors produced by lymphocytes are known as lymphokines, whereas those produced by macrophages are known as monokines.